A Historical Timeline for Madagascar

Library of Congress, Country Studies publication 1994:

Timeline:

160 million years ago - Madgascar is born as it separates from the African mainland
80 million years ago - Madgascar breaks away from India
Around 2000 years ago - Madagascar settled by Indonesians or people of mixed Indonesian/African descent
800-900 AD - Arab merchants begin trading along the northern coast
1200 AD - central highlands of the island are settled.
August 10, 1500 - Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias becomes first European to land on Madagascar after he is blown off course on the way to India. He named the island St. Lawrence.
1500s - Portuguese, French, Dutch, and English attempt to establish trading settlements which fail due to hostile conditions and fierce local Malagasy
late 1600s through the early 1700s - pirates ruled the eastern coast of the island
1700s - the Sakalava of the western coast establish the first kingdom which extended from Tulear in the south to Diego Suarez in the north.
1700s - The French attempt to establish military positions on the east coast but by the early 19th century the only settlement they could claim was the island of Ste. Marie.
1810-1828 - Radama I, a Merina king who has help from the British, unifies most of the country save for the Sakalava kingdom in the far west and far south. Radama opens the country to English missionaries who spread Christianity throughout the island and transcribed Malagasy to a written language. Under his reign, a miniature Industrial Revolution brings induatry to the island.
1828-1861 - Radama I is succeeded by his widow Ranavalona I, who terrorizes the country for 33 years by persecuting Christians, evicting foreigners, executing political rivals, and reviving the custom of killing babies born un unlucky days.
1846 - combined French and English force attacks Tamatave but fails to make much headway
Ranavalona I's son Radama II restores contact with the outside world and ends the persecution of Christians.
1863 - Radama II is assassinated
1865 & 1868 - treaties are signed with England and France respectively
1883-1885 - Franco-Malagasy War results in December 17, 1885 peace agreement that gives France a greater influence in the affairs of Madagascar
1890 - The British recognize a French protectorate over Madagascar in exchange for concessions in Zanzibar.
December 1894 - France invades Madagascar and takes the captial Tana on October 1, 1895. France loses only 20 men in battle during the campaign but more than 6,000 to disease.
1896 - France annexes Madagascar as a colony and later unifies the country under a single government.
1918 - the first of several uprisings against French rule
1947 - The French crush rebellion lead by Jean Ralaimongo. Up to 80,000 Malagasy are killed.
June 26, 1960 - Madagascar gains independence
1975 - After a three years of political instability, Didier Ratsiraka takes control and establishes a quasi-Maxist state by nationalizing institutions, launching social and economic reforms, and cultivating friendships with Communist states. The economy begins a sustained decline that will last into the 1990s.
1991 - After an economic collapse, Malagasy take to the streets and demand a new government
1993 - Ratsiraka is ousted and replaced with Albert Zafy who wins democratic elections and forms the Thrid Republic. Zafy later runs into trouble by continually breaching the constitution and is impeached by the National Assembly.
1997 - Ratsiraka is voted back into power and is successful in restoring some of his dictatorial powers.
2001 - Marc Ravalomanana, mayor of Tana, is elected president with 52% of the vote. Ratsiraka refuses to accept the result and a political snafu ensues. Ratsiraka sets up a a rival government in his home town of Toasmasina and his supporters lay seige to Antananarivo, blocking roads and dynamiting bridges. The population in Tana suffered greatly -- prices for food and vital supplies soared, thousands of jobs were lost, businesses went under, the poor starved. After a court monitored recount reaffirmed that Ravalomanana was indeed the victor, the army lent its support and other nations recognized the elected president's government. Ratsiraka fled in exile to France in July 2002.
2006 - Marc Ravalomanana was re-elected for a second term.
2009 - President Marc Ravalomanana was ousted in March 2009 during an uprising led by Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo. Rajoelina has since ushered in a Fourth Republic and rules Madagascar as the President of the High Transitional Authority without recognition from the international community.

Madagascar: A Historical Overview

Precolonial Era, Prior to 1894

Madagascar's history as a crossroads for African, Asian, and Middle Eastern influences is evident in its cultural and economic development long before European involvement. The ruins of fortifications built by Arab traders as early as the ninth century highlight the island’s role as a hub in Indian Ocean trade networks. These early interactions shaped Madagascar’s diverse population, with influences from seafarers, merchants, and settlers.

European interest in Madagascar began in the sixteenth century, with Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French ships exploring its coasts. The French established a settlement at Tolagnaro in 1643, which lasted for over thirty years due to early alliances with the Antanosy people. However, relations eventually deteriorated, culminating in a massacre of French settlers in 1674. This event curtailed French colonization efforts for over a century.

Trade, Piracy, and Slavery

During the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Madagascar became a haven for pirates due to its strategic location and lack of European naval control. Pirates used the island as a base to raid ships in the Arabian and Red Seas while seeking shelter and provisions. This period also saw Madagascar’s deep entanglement in the global slave trade. The island became a source of enslaved people for French colonies such as Mauritius and Réunion, as well as for European and Arab traders.

The Malagasy social and political landscape facilitated this trade. Coastal kingdoms such as the Sakalava and Betsimisaraka engaged in warfare, capturing and selling prisoners to European traders in exchange for firearms and goods. The Sakalava controlled much of western Madagascar, while the Betsimisaraka ruled the eastern coast. The Mahafaly and Antandroy dominated the southern regions, each establishing trade and military alliances.

The Rise of the Merina Kingdom

While coastal kingdoms were engaged in trade, warfare, and shifting alliances, the Merina people of the central highlands gradually expanded their influence. Their location in the interior provided protection from coastal conflicts and allowed for political consolidation. The Merina developed a hierarchical social structure, including a unique governing institution known as the fokonolona—a village council that played a role in local governance.

Two rulers played a crucial role in Merina expansion. Andrianampoinimerina (r. 1797-1810) united the fragmented Merina kingdoms and established Antananarivo as the capital. His successor, Radama I (r. 1816-1828), pursued a policy of modernization, expanding Merina rule across much of Madagascar with British support. The British provided military aid in exchange for a ban on the slave trade, aligning with British abolitionist efforts.

European Influence and Internal Struggles

Radama I’s reign introduced Western-style institutions, including schools and a written Malagasy language using the Latin alphabet. However, his successor, Queen Ranavalona I (r. 1828-1861), reversed these policies. She expelled European missionaries, persecuted Christian converts, and sought to maintain Merina independence by limiting foreign influence. This period saw internal consolidation but also increased tensions with France and Britain.

After Ranavalona I’s death, her successors gradually reopened Madagascar to European trade and influence. Rainilaiarivony, a powerful prime minister, pursued a delicate balance, granting concessions to Britain and France to avoid colonization. However, European imperial ambitions grew stronger, culminating in direct French intervention.

Colonial Era, 1894-1960

The French Conquest

In 1894, France formally declared Madagascar a protectorate, despite resistance from Queen Ranavalona III. The following year, French troops occupied Antananarivo, overthrowing the Merina monarchy. A period of anti-foreign riots ensued, but by 1896, Madagascar was fully annexed as a French colony. Queen Ranavalona III and her prime minister were exiled, first to Réunion, then to Algeria.

French colonial rule imposed significant economic and social changes. The traditional ruling elite was largely displaced, and Madagascar was integrated into the French economic system. Infrastructure projects, including roads and railways, were developed to facilitate resource extraction. Agricultural production shifted toward cash crops such as coffee, vanilla, and cloves for export, while forced labor policies ensured a steady workforce.

Emerging Nationalism

Despite repression, nationalist sentiments grew. A small but educated Malagasy elite, particularly among the Merina, was influenced by European political thought and the example of Japan’s modernization. In 1913, the secret nationalist society Vy Vato Sakelika (Iron and Stone Ramification) was formed but was swiftly suppressed by French authorities.

World War I further shaped nationalist consciousness, as Malagasy soldiers served in the French military. The 1920s and 1930s saw demands for labor rights, equality, and political representation. Figures like Jean Ralaimongo, a veteran turned activist, advocated for Malagasy civil rights and land reform.

The Revolt of 1947

Frustrations over colonial rule exploded in the 1947 Malagasy Uprising. Rebels, largely drawn from rural communities, launched coordinated attacks on French military installations. The French response was brutal—thousands of Malagasy were killed in reprisals. The exact death toll remains debated, but estimates range from 11,000 to 80,000 casualties.

The revolt was crushed, but it marked a turning point. The French government introduced reforms, including expanded political representation. In 1956, the loi-cadre (enabling law) provided Madagascar with greater self-governance, paving the way for independence.

Path to Independence, Independence, the First Republic, and the Military Transition (1960-1975)

By the late 1950s, the debate over Madagascar’s future intensified. Two major political factions emerged. The Democratic Social Party of Madagascar (PSD), led by Philibert Tsiranana, favored autonomy while maintaining strong ties with France. The more radical Congress Party for the Independence of Madagascar (AKFM), led by Richard Andriamanjato, advocated full independence and socialist policies.

In 1958, a referendum was held under French President Charles de Gaulle’s new constitution, offering territories the choice between remaining part of France or gaining autonomy. Madagascar voted overwhelmingly for autonomy, and in 1960, it achieved full independence with Tsiranana as the first president.

On September 28, 1958, Madagascar voted in favor of becoming a self-governing republic within the French Community under the newly established Fifth Republic of France, led by Charles de Gaulle. While nationalist parties such as the AKFM opposed limited self-rule, their influence was minimal—only 25% of voters sided against the referendum. With overwhelming support, the country elected Philibert Tsiranana as its first president on April 27, 1959.

Negotiations between Tsiranana and French authorities led to Madagascar officially attaining full independence on June 26, 1960. However, Tsiranana's vision for an independent Madagascar was closely tied to maintaining Franco-Malagasy relations. Fourteen agreements and conventions were signed with France, securing military, economic, and cultural ties between the two nations. While these agreements provided stability, they also became a source of criticism from opposition groups.

The First Republic and Tsiranana’s Leadership

Following independence, Tsiranana successfully co-opted nationalist movements by securing the release of MDRM leaders detained since the Revolt of 1947. His government emphasized political stability, Western-style modernization, and continued reliance on French support. The ruling Social Democratic Party (PSD) dominated the political scene, benefiting from broad support among côtiers (coastal ethnic groups), while the opposition remained fragmented.

Despite initial optimism, Tsiranana’s government systematically marginalized opposition parties. The political system was structured to favor the incumbent, as the winner-takes-all electoral system denied opposition groups meaningful representation. The AKFM, the strongest opposition party, suffered from internal divisions between Marxist and ultranationalist factions. Furthermore, its base was concentrated among the Merina middle class, limiting its national reach.

While Tsiranana’s early years were marked by political reconciliation, his administration faced growing discontent as economic stagnation set in. By the late 1960s, living standards declined, investment capital dried up, and development goals remained unmet. Discontent among marginalized groups, particularly rural farmers and urban youth, led to a series of uprisings that would eventually bring an end to the First Republic.

Rural and Urban Protests (1971-1972)

The first major challenge to Tsiranana’s government came in April 1971, when the National Movement for the Independence of Madagascar (Monima), led by Monja Jaona, launched a peasant uprising in Toliara Province. The revolt was sparked by government tax policies, economic hardship, and cattle disease outbreaks that devastated local herds. The rebels hoped for support from China, but no external aid materialized.

The Malagasy government swiftly responded with military force, suppressing the uprising with significant casualties. Estimates suggest between 50 and 1,000 people were killed. The Monima party was banned, and its leaders, including Monja Jaona, were arrested and deported to the island of Nosy Lava.

Just a year later, a student-led movement emerged in Antananarivo, escalating tensions. In early 1972, secondary-level students staged a nationwide strike, demanding an end to French control over the educational system. Their primary grievances included:

The abolition of French cultural agreements.
The replacement of French curricula with programs that emphasized Malagasy history and culture.
Greater access to education for economically disadvantaged students.

The movement gained traction, drawing support from workers, public servants, and unemployed youth. The government, desperate to maintain control, arrested hundreds of student leaders and closed schools indefinitely. When protests escalated, security forces opened fire on demonstrators in May 1972, killing between 15 and 40 people and injuring hundreds more.

The Fall of the First Republic and Military Takeover

With public outrage mounting, Tsiranana declared a state of national emergency on May 18, 1972, and dissolved his government, marking the end of the First Republic. Power was handed over to the National Army, led by General Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a former officer in the French military.

Ramanantsoa, a politically conservative Merina, initially enjoyed public support due to the army’s neutrality in the crisis. However, his administration struggled to address Madagascar’s deepening economic problems and rising ethnic tensions. In an effort to restore stability, he pursued a policy of reconciliation, which included:

Reducing Madagascar’s dependence on France.
Expanding national control over the economy.
Attempting to mediate Merina-côtier tensions.

Despite these efforts, dissatisfaction with the military government grew. On December 31, 1974, a failed coup attempt by côtier officers highlighted increasing divisions within the armed forces. To ease tensions, Ramanantsoa resigned on February 5, 1975, and handed power to Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, a Merina with a more humble background.

Political Crisis and the National Military Directorate

Ratsimandrava's tenure as head of state lasted only six days. On February 11, 1975, he was assassinated in unclear circumstances, plunging Madagascar into a deep political crisis. In response, the military formed the National Military Directorate, declaring martial law and suspending all political parties.

For months, Madagascar remained in political limbo, with no clear leadership. The country faced severe censorship, increased repression, and heightened uncertainty. The situation was finally resolved on June 15, 1975, when the military appointed Lieutenant Commander Didier Ratsiraka as head of state.

The Rise of Didier Ratsiraka

Ratsiraka, a Betsimisaraka officer with socialist leanings, was seen as a consensus candidate who could unite the fractured political landscape. Unlike his predecessors, he embraced radical socialist policies, aligning with leftist groups such as AKFM and Monima.

In December 1975, Ratsiraka held a national referendum, consolidating his power and officially establishing the Second Republic under his leadership. His Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) became the ruling body, initiating a shift toward Marxist governance.